Friday, December 27, 2019

How Death Can Come Without Notice - 1486 Words

In this paper, I will define the different scenarios and ways that death can come without notice, and the irony can be subjected in books, poetry, and articles that we read every day. In the short stories that I have read there is always defining aspect of what’s coming next. However it is always changed by something that you have read at the beginning of the story where it has actually told you exactly what was going to happen but only in so many words. When you are dealing with poetry, it is always a different setup you have to read the poem in depth to really know what’s going on in the poem as a whole. It can start off with it being nice and settle and even end the same way and leave you thinking about what is next or what’s going to†¦show more content†¦As the story goes on everything is going on just like a regular ride would go from Atlanta, Ga. The grandmother was sitting between the two oldest children who really didn’t want to be sitting in the back with their grandmother. As the ride progresses on and on the children begins to get restless and so does the grandmother. The story is passed on Connor’s Christian beliefs and his moral code, and it is definite in this story as you go through the entire story. A moral code is a part of the behaviors and beliefs of that the people in the story will abide by for fulfilling lives. The feeling of being a lady is one of the biggest concepts that the grandmother goes by. At the first glance of the Misfit’s code is misguided, it’s actually the code that the grandmother goes by that proves to be inconsistent and flimsy. The grandmother finds herself unable to pray during a crisis even though she is a devote Christian. This begins to question the power and divinity of Jesus. However, the Misfit’s moral code seems to be rather consistent and strong from his experience with being a convicted criminal. Punishments and crime will always go hand in hand b ecause in the end, it doesn’t really matter. The ending of the story and the tragedy that has happened was sought out from the very beginning of the story, and it all went to demise when she realized who

Thursday, December 19, 2019

Applied research questions Essay - 833 Words

1. What are the similarities between descriptive and inferential statistics? What are the differences? When should descriptive and inferential statistics be used? Descriptive statistics describes data by organizing factors of a sample such as culture, gender, age, or location and is shown with charts or graphs. Descriptive statistics can interpret larger portions of data and reduce larger portions of data. The measure of central tendency describes the average score being the mean, the median being the midpoint of a spread of scores, and the mode the most frequent. There are certain levels of measurement and descriptive statistics may not be the best technique based on the measurement, these scales include nominal, ordinal, interval, and†¦show more content†¦The analysis of a single individual, event, or group is a case study. There are different types of cases, which are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. When doing this type of research one must go out into the field to observe or interview in a natural setting. In the field, those collecting data develop a research role, which establishes the position of the investigator and h is or her relationships with others in the situation. At one extreme, the researcher is a complete outsider, totally detached from the naturally occurring behavior and activities of the participants. He or she essentially has no involvement in what occurs in the setting. The researcher is detached coming in, collecting data, and then leaving. A complete insider, on the other hand, is a researcher who has an established role in the setting in which data are collected, engaging in genuine and natural participation. Most fieldworkers’ roles are between these extremes, using what could be labeled insider/outsider or partial participation. These individuals participate to some extent in the setting, rather than just sit on the sidelines, but they are not full participants. Case studies provide in-depth information about people and the possible insight into behavior, in which these can be more controlled at a later time. These types of cases provide opportunities for new techniques . Case studies also make it possible to research rare phenomena. Case studies provideShow MoreRelatedAn Ontological Positivist Assumption Discovering Consumers Understanding Of An Effective Smm1256 Words   |  6 PagesMethodology Research Design This research will be based on an ontological positivist assumption discovering consumers’ understanding of an effective SMM. This research has adopted descriptive, analytical, quantitative, inductive and applied research method. The main purpose of the research is to answer the research questions set in chapter 2. This research will focus on descriptive and analytical methods. The objective of descriptive research is to identify the subject and its attributes. For analyticalRead MoreBusiness Research Methods and Tools Essay997 Words   |  4 PagesAssignment One BUS642 Business Research Methods and Tools August 27, 2012 What is business research? Why should there be any question about the definition of research? â€Å"Business research is a process of planning, acquiring, analyzing, and disseminating relevant data, information, and insights†¦in ways that mobilize the organization to take appropriate actions that in turn, maximize performance.† (Cooper, amp; Schindler, 2011, p.4) Research is a planned and systematic process of inquiry andRead MoreBus642 - Week 1 Essay723 Words   |  3 PagesWeek One Exercises Complete Discussion Questions 1, 2, and 5 on page 22. 1. What is business research? Why should there be any question about the definition of research? Business research is a methodical process in which a company or manager recognizes a need for data in order to make effective business making decisions. â€Å"More specifically, it is a process of planning, acquiring, analyzing, and Disseminating relevant data, information, and insights to decisions makers in ways thatRead MoreResearch Process and Terminology962 Words   |  4 PagesResearch Process and Terminology Laytoya Wilson CJA/334 26 June 2011 University of Phoenix Research involves the study of something to discover facts and maybe even apply the findings in order to change something. There are two types of research, there is basic or pure research and then there is applied research, in which you really don’t need both in order to complete a study but in most cases is a good idea. Researchers have their own language, like doctors and police officers, researchersRead MoreManagement3506 Words   |  15 PagesSchool of Computing and Mathematics Faculty of BCL Request for Ethical Approval for Individual Study / Programme of Research by University Students Students conducting PG Independent Scholarship (PG IS), UG Applied Research Project (UG ARP), UG Maths Projects (UG MP) or Learning-through-Work (LTW) projects must complete this form and submit to their project supervisors for approval. After initial approval, project supervisors need to submit these forms to PG ISRead MoreConsumers Familiarity With Instagram As A Marketing Platform2064 Words   |  9 Pagescelebrity as an opinion leader †¢ Consumer’s product knowledge Introduction A shortfall acknowledged in Chapter Two found neglected aspects in research discussing a consumer’s perception to celebrities as product experts and to Instagram, as a social media marketing platform. Therefore, the study utilised the research objectives set, to discover new research into the overall attractiveness behind marketers using celebrity endorsements, in order to indicate whether they had any influence on participants’Read MoreBusiness Research : Business And Management Research1396 Words   |  6 PagesBusiness Research Assignment 1 ‘Business and management research is a systematic inquiry that helps to solve business problems and contributes to management knowledge. It is an applied research.’ (Wiki) According to Easterby-Smith (2008), business and management research focuses on four factors: - Information access is very important for managers. It makes competitive advantage for them, especially in the era of information technology. - Managers need information produced by the classical research methodRead MoreWhat I Learned About Anthropology And Learned Valuable Lessons846 Words   |  4 PagesI had the pleasure of interviewing two accomplished and fascinating applied anthropologists. I chose these two anthropologists not only because Dr. Wallace recommended them, but also because they work in my fields of interest. The first interview I conducted was anthropologist Dr. Jason Lind, he is currently a qualitative health researcher for the prestigious Veterans Association. The second interview I had was with anthropologist Dr. Kathryn Kozaitis, she is currently a professor and chair at GeorgiaRead MoreApplied Behavioral Analysis993 Words   |  4 PagesApplied Behavioral Analysis Applied Behavioral Analysis Introduction Behavior Analysis emphasizes on the values and principles that explain the process of learning through the development of human beings. Behavior analysis represents scientific approach that understands behavior within the context of occurrence. One of the principles of how learning occurs is positive reinforcement. In the process of implementing reward after behavior, there is a possibility of repetition of the action in theRead More Research Methods1483 Words   |  6 PagesAnalyze of research in averagely can be accounted as an aim for understanding or a systematic study in search of information to shape or accept achievable facts. There are two mainly different ways of research. First, there is the basic research that appears not to go into the study field and the second, way is the applied research that studies given area into the aspect. It applies to resolve, understand and advance the methods and systems that are used in the search for human understanding of abnormal

Tuesday, December 10, 2019

Media Audience and Mediatisation

Question : Ross and Nightingale argue 'audience research is a vehicle for monitoring the impact of both the mediatisation of human senses and the industrialisation of the productive capacity of the media'. Using examples briefly discuss the term mediatisation. Answer : Mediatisation is very important to discuss today as this has become a source of information of political and societal information among the audiences. Thus, this essay is about the media audiences and mediatisation which will discuss how audience research affects both mediatisation of human senses and medias productive capacity. Along with that we will also see what mediatisation is actually, difference in mediatisation and mediation phases of mediatisation, Mediatisation and the media audience and research of audience research on mediatisation (Hepp, 2011). According to media studies, the theory related to the shaping and packing of media processes and the communications related to politics as well as society is called mediatisation. Mediatisation at the heart of the politics refers to social change process. It makes the media autonomous from political actors and institutions. This also increases the influence of media over processes, political actors and institutions. Mediatisation is a very big field which can be related to social activities, politics etc. Initially, mediatisation was just a hierarchy of two monarchies in such a way that the ruler keeps his title and local powers. Mediation is nothing but just a process of transmitting message through different media. Mediation doesnt directly influence the political processes while mediatisation directly influences the politics. Mediation even doesnt directly relate to the media. Mediation of politics is the first step of mediatisation (Schroder, 2007). Thus, mediatisation is directly related to the politics and media while mediation is not. There are mainly four phases of mediatisation. When the mass media is the most important source of information and communication medium between the political actors and agencies then that is the first stage of mediatisation. The second phase of mediatisation is when it becomes independent of government and politics means it started governing the media according to the logic of media and the media logic becomes more influencing and important. Mediatisation continues its dominancy and a most important source of information and communication media for different sections or parts of the society in the third phase of mediatisation (Stromback, 2010). In this phase, media is still perceived external for political actors but political actors also recognizes the necessity of logic of media. In the fourth phase of mediatisation, actors of politics and society adapt the logic of media and the news value which is predominated. In the fourth phase, these factors also become the internal factors. There is a big relationship between media audience and mediatisation as both impact each other. Mediatisation increases the knowledge of politics and the awareness of society among the media audiences. People come to know about the political situation of the country and the problem of society. People find the solution and their sole responsibility towards society, country and environment etc. Media audience also helps the mediatisation in many ways, like, it helps the mediatisation in growing which helps in gaining various types of experiences from media audience. Thus, both media audience and mediatisation impact each other in many ways. Audience research is a very good tool in mediatisation and the industrialisation of the productive capacity of media (Mediatisation of politics, 2014). Audience research actually tells the real time experience of the people. Audience is a real time entity which can provide the data related to what audience actually feels and experiences. Sometimes the theories may become wrong up to some extent due to negligence of various other factors. The impact of these factors may only be experienced by the real time consideration. This real time consideration can be experienced by only researching the audience. To enhance the capability of media, audience research is a main factor to help the media to find those factors which are not considered. Audience research also helps the media and mediatisation of human senses to improve. Media experiences the knowledge about the human senses and thinking. The different human behaviour on any political issue and society matter can be experienced (Slidesh are, 2013). The above essay is the result of various studies and research. Mediatisation is related to the political as well as societal issues in the world of media. It has a great influence on society and audience. Audiences come to know about the political factors and their society problems which help the people to find their sole responsibility for those problems (Schroder, 2007). Mediatisation also gets the help from audiences by experiencing their response and behaviour on the particular problem or situation. References Hepp, Andreas (2011). Mediatisation, Media Technology and the Moulding forces of media [online]. Available at: https://www.andreas-hepp.name/Blog/Eintrage/2011/5/26_Paper_auf_der_ICA-Tagung_und_mehr_files/Hepp.pdf [Accessed: 15th January 2015]. Mediatisation of Politics (2014). Defining mediatisation [online]. Available at: https://mediatization-of-politics.com/defining-mediatization/ [Accessed: 15th January 2015]. Schroder, Kim (2007). Mediatised Politics: Political Discourses and the media in Contemporary Danish Democracy Available at: https://www.nordicom.gu.se/sites/default/files/kapitel-pdf/12_059_070.pdf [Accessed: 15th January 2015]. Slideshare (2013). Media Audiences introduction [Online] Available at: https://www.slideshare.net/alevelmedia/media-audiences-an-introduction[Accessed: 15th January 2015].

Tuesday, December 3, 2019

Still Just Writing free essay sample

Almost every man who walks this planet has goals, aims, and, aspirations that he dreams of achieving. However, distractions often come about, thwarting people and preventing them from attaining their aspirations. A distraction can pull a person’s whole mind and body into a different world manipulating him to neglect his lifelong goals, and never achieve his dreams. A student, entering college with dreams of achieving a 4. 0 GPA and becoming valedictorian, can easily be swept up by social distractions, causing him to abandon his goals. Tillie Olsen and Anne Tyler both discus in their narratives, â€Å"Silences†, and, â€Å"Still Just Writing†, how parenting, childrearing, and mundane errands effected their lifelong dreams of becoming writers. They both believe that women cannot possibly create â€Å"enduring literature† unless they remain childless. However, Olsen and Tyler each viewed her own personal situation through different perspectives. Their different perspectives on life led them to each deal with her lifelong dreams and desires of becoming authors in different ways. We will write a custom essay sample on Still Just Writing or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The constant responsibilities of motherhood will have an effect on a woman’s desires and dreams. Both Olsen’s and Tyler’s dreams of becoming writers were neglected because of the immense responsibilities of motherhood. Tillie Olsen states, â€Å"All distinguished achievements has come from childless women†. She believes that all her motherly tasks have left her writing skills to â€Å"fester†, â€Å"convulse†, and â€Å"die† within her. She feels that her responsibilities and trials of family have locked away her writing talents, â€Å"like a squirrel in a cage†. Similarly, Tyler’s busy life as a mother tremendously weakens her writing abilities. Between her children’s spring vacation, dental appointments, and gymnastics meetings, there seems to never be a free moment for her to sit down and concentrate on writing a novel, â€Å"Although she planned to work till three thirty everyday it was a month of early quittings†. Tyler’s writing skills slowly deteriorated, and her once powerful, thought-out characters, turned, â€Å"pale and knuckly, like someone scrabbling at a cliff edge so as not to fall away entirely†. The responsibilities and joy of bringing up children, and being a dedicated mother distracted Olsen and Tyler from developing their writing skills, and fulfilling their dreams of becoming renowned authors. Happiness is not dependent on one’s life situation, rather it is dependent on ones perspective and attitude regarding his situation. Although Olsen’s and Tyler’s situations in life were quite similar, their perspectives and attitudes on life could not have been more different. Tillie Olsen believes that social pressures squashed her talents and all women’s writing talents into a dark shadowy corner, denying their development. She believes that society views â€Å"woman writers, woman experience, and literature written by woman by definition minor†. Furthermore, Olsen believes that woman are forced to give into the social pressures of always, â€Å"being attractive†, and spend hours, â€Å"agonizing over appearance†, rather than spending hours working on literary writings. Olsen views herself and her lost dreams as the miserable victim of social discrimination against women. However, Anne Tyler views her situation in a totally different light than Olsen does. Tyler believes that distractions are a part of life that affects everyone, not just woman. She laments how her husband’s writing, â€Å"fell by the wayside†, while he was finishing his medical schooling. Additionally, she describes how her husband’s, â€Å"responsibilities to support a family† cause him to neglect his writings, which he cares so deeply about. Unlike Olsen, Tyler doesn’t view the world as an evil place that stunts women from developing their talents, rather she views the world as a place where everyone, man and woman alike, have responsibilities towards other people which must be fulfilled as they strive to accomplish their lifelong dreams. Differences in ones perspective in life leads to different outcomes in the way one leads one’s life. Olsen’s negative outlook on her life led her to permanently give up on her dreams. Olsen believes that one cannot find a balance between ones mundane responsibilities and one’s dreams. She believes that, â€Å"you must choose between your art and fulfillment as a woman†. Her pessimistic belief that she is the victim of â€Å"coercive working of sexiest oppression†, causes her to relinquish her lifelong goals. Although she admits that some women try to have a family life and become a writer, her negative perspective on the world causes her to believe that their work will be, â€Å"impeded, lessened and partial†. Olsen’s downbeat attitude towards life has led her to believe that the responsibilities of motherhood has sapped her from her literary and writing talents, and has cruelly snatched away her dreams of becoming a distinguished author. Unlike Olsen, Tyler’s positive outlook on life allowed her to learn how to deal with her responsibilities. Like a child who learns how to balance on a bicycle, Tyler learns how to properly balance her life as a mother and a writer. She believes that her experience of being a mother has caused her to grow, â€Å"richer and deeper†, allowing her writing to become more profound and meaningful, â€Å"when I did write I had more self to speak from†. Tyler has successfully found a, â€Å"way to slip gracefully through a choppy life of writing novels, plastering the dining room ceiling and presiding at slumber parties†. Tyler is a successful mother and yet she is also, â€Å"still just writing†. Tyler’s optimistic outlook on life led her to become a unique individual; she is a happy easygoing housewife and mother, and a deep profound writer. Few people can fulfill their responsibilities towards others and attain their dreams. Only with a positive, upbeat, easygoing attitude, like that of Tyler, can one fulfill the time consuming, mundane tasks of life, while simultaneously achieving one’s lifelong goals. This world is a challenge, where we each must find the exact balance between our general obligations to our family and mankind, and our lifelong goals and desires. We cannot allow our mundane responsibilities to sidetrack us from reaching our goals. We must use our mind like a laser beam, and focus on what is important in our life, whether it is becoming the next great author, earning a 4. 0 GPA or developing our character traits. We should be like Anne Tyler and view our responsibilities through a positive eye, learn to appreciate them, and grow from them, but not allow them overtake our desires to accomplish our aims, ambitions, and aspirations. Still Just Writing free essay sample Almost every man who walks this planet has goals, aims, and, aspirations that he dreams of achieving. However, distractions often come about, thwarting people and preventing them from attaining their aspirations. A distraction can pull a person’s whole mind and body into a different world manipulating him to neglect his lifelong goals, and never achieve his dreams. A student, entering college with dreams of achieving a 4. 0 GPA and becoming valedictorian, can easily be swept up by social distractions, causing him to abandon his goals. Tillie Olsen and Anne Tyler both discus in their narratives, â€Å"Silences†, and, â€Å"Still Just Writing†, how parenting, childrearing, and mundane errands effected their lifelong dreams of becoming writers. They both believe that women cannot possibly create â€Å"enduring literature† unless they remain childless. However, Olsen and Tyler each viewed her own personal situation through different perspectives. Their different perspectives on life led them to each deal with her lifelong dreams and desires of becoming authors in different ways. We will write a custom essay sample on Still Just Writing or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The constant responsibilities of motherhood will have an effect on a woman’s desires and dreams. Both Olsen’s and Tyler’s dreams of becoming writers were neglected because of the immense responsibilities of motherhood. Tillie Olsen states, â€Å"All distinguished achievements has come from childless women†. She believes that all her motherly tasks have left her writing skills to â€Å"fester†, â€Å"convulse†, and â€Å"die† within her. She feels that her responsibilities and trials of family have locked away her writing talents, â€Å"like a squirrel in a cage†. Similarly, Tyler’s busy life as a mother tremendously weakens her writing abilities. Between her children’s spring vacation, dental appointments, and gymnastics meetings, there seems to never be a free moment for her to sit down and concentrate on writing a novel, â€Å"Although she planned to work till three thirty everyday it was a month of early quittings†. Tyler’s writing skills slowly deteriorated, and her once powerful, thought-out characters, turned, â€Å"pale and knuckly, like someone scrabbling at a cliff edge so as not to fall away entirely†. The responsibilities and joy of bringing up children, and being a dedicated mother distracted Olsen and Tyler from developing their writing skills, and fulfilling their dreams of becoming renowned authors. Happiness is not dependent on one’s life situation, rather it is dependent on ones perspective and attitude regarding his situation. Although Olsen’s and Tyler’s situations in life were quite similar, their perspectives and attitudes on life could not have been more different. Tillie Olsen believes that social pressures squashed her talents and all women’s writing talents into a dark shadowy corner, denying their development. She believes that society views â€Å"woman writers, woman experience, and literature written by woman by definition minor†. Furthermore, Olsen believes that woman are forced to give into the social pressures of always, â€Å"being attractive†, and spend hours, â€Å"agonizing over appearance†, rather than spending hours working on literary writings. Olsen views herself and her lost dreams as the miserable victim of social discrimination against women. However, Anne Tyler views her situation in a totally different light than Olsen does. Tyler believes that distractions are a part of life that affects everyone, not just woman. She laments how her husband’s writing, â€Å"fell by the wayside†, while he was finishing his medical schooling. Additionally, she describes how her husband’s, â€Å"responsibilities to support a family† cause him to neglect his writings, which he cares so deeply about. Unlike Olsen, Tyler doesn’t view the world as an evil place that stunts women from developing their talents, rather she views the world as a place where everyone, man and woman alike, have responsibilities towards other people which must be fulfilled as they strive to accomplish their lifelong dreams. Differences in ones perspective in life leads to different outcomes in the way one leads one’s life. Olsen’s negative outlook on her life led her to permanently give up on her dreams. Olsen believes that one cannot find a balance between ones mundane responsibilities and one’s dreams. She believes that, â€Å"you must choose between your art and fulfillment as a woman†. Her pessimistic belief that she is the victim of â€Å"coercive working of sexiest oppression†, causes her to relinquish her lifelong goals. Although she admits that some women try to have a family life and become a writer, her negative perspective on the world causes her to believe that their work will be, â€Å"impeded, lessened and partial†. Olsen’s downbeat attitude towards life has led her to believe that the responsibilities of motherhood has sapped her from her literary and writing talents, and has cruelly snatched away her dreams of becoming a distinguished author. Unlike Olsen, Tyler’s positive outlook on life allowed her to learn how to deal with her responsibilities. Like a child who learns how to balance on a bicycle, Tyler learns how to properly balance her life as a mother and a writer. She believes that her experience of being a mother has caused her to grow, â€Å"richer and deeper†, allowing her writing to become more profound and meaningful, â€Å"when I did write I had more self to speak from†. Tyler has successfully found a, â€Å"way to slip gracefully through a choppy life of writing novels, plastering the dining room ceiling and presiding at slumber parties†. Tyler is a successful mother and yet she is also, â€Å"still just writing†. Tyler’s optimistic outlook on life led her to become a unique individual; she is a happy easygoing housewife and mother, and a deep profound writer. Few people can fulfill their responsibilities towards others and attain their dreams. Only with a positive, upbeat, easygoing attitude, like that of Tyler, can one fulfill the time consuming, mundane tasks of life, while simultaneously achieving one’s lifelong goals. This world is a challenge, where we each must find the exact balance between our general obligations to our family and mankind, and our lifelong goals and desires. We cannot allow our mundane responsibilities to sidetrack us from reaching our goals. We must use our mind like a laser beam, and focus on what is important in our life, whether it is becoming the next great author, earning a 4. 0 GPA or developing our character traits. We should be like Anne Tyler and view our responsibilities through a positive eye, learn to appreciate them, and grow from them, but not allow them overtake our desires to accomplish our aims, ambitions, and aspirations.

Wednesday, November 27, 2019

Free Essays on The Big Odyseus

The tale begins on Mt. Olympus where Athena draws Zeus' attention to Odysseus whose journey has been halted on the island of Calypso. Zeus sends Hermes to have Odysseus released and Athena goes to Ithaca. In Ithaca she assumes a disguise and convinces Telemachus to go on a journey seeking news of his father. Telemachus calls an assembly announcing that the suitors who have besieged his house and have eaten his food for years are in the wrong. He goes to see Nestor at Pylos and Nestor does not know anything recent about his father. Nestor advises him to go to Sparta to see Menelaus. When he gets to Sparta, Menelaus tells him that the last thing he heard about Odysseus was that he was trapped on the island of Calypso. They feast together and talk into the night. Athena reminds Zeus to send Hermes to Calypso and he tells her that Odysseus may leave but under strict conditions: he has to build his own raft. Calypso isn't happy about the command and Odysseus has problems believing her. Once he has built his raft, she gives him food and sends him off. He sails for seventeen days and then his raft is destroyed by Poseidon. He is aided by a nymph and floats for two days to land. He is found by Nausikaa and told to go to the house of her father Alkinoos. Alkinoos hears part of his tale and secures passage for him back to Ithaca. There are athletic games and feasts at which a minstrel sings. The minstrel's songs make Odysseus cry and this makes Alcinoos even more curious about his situation. Alkinoos asks Odysseus if any of his relatives died at Troy and Odysseus begins his tale. He tells them how he left Troy and lost some men in a botched raiding party. Soon after this they came near the land of the Lotus eaters where some of his men were almost lost to the enchanting flower. Then came the island of the Cyclops. Odysseus led his men in to investigate and was trapped by Polyphemus, one of the Cyclop... Free Essays on The Big Odyseus Free Essays on The Big Odyseus The tale begins on Mt. Olympus where Athena draws Zeus' attention to Odysseus whose journey has been halted on the island of Calypso. Zeus sends Hermes to have Odysseus released and Athena goes to Ithaca. In Ithaca she assumes a disguise and convinces Telemachus to go on a journey seeking news of his father. Telemachus calls an assembly announcing that the suitors who have besieged his house and have eaten his food for years are in the wrong. He goes to see Nestor at Pylos and Nestor does not know anything recent about his father. Nestor advises him to go to Sparta to see Menelaus. When he gets to Sparta, Menelaus tells him that the last thing he heard about Odysseus was that he was trapped on the island of Calypso. They feast together and talk into the night. Athena reminds Zeus to send Hermes to Calypso and he tells her that Odysseus may leave but under strict conditions: he has to build his own raft. Calypso isn't happy about the command and Odysseus has problems believing her. Once he has built his raft, she gives him food and sends him off. He sails for seventeen days and then his raft is destroyed by Poseidon. He is aided by a nymph and floats for two days to land. He is found by Nausikaa and told to go to the house of her father Alkinoos. Alkinoos hears part of his tale and secures passage for him back to Ithaca. There are athletic games and feasts at which a minstrel sings. The minstrel's songs make Odysseus cry and this makes Alcinoos even more curious about his situation. Alkinoos asks Odysseus if any of his relatives died at Troy and Odysseus begins his tale. He tells them how he left Troy and lost some men in a botched raiding party. Soon after this they came near the land of the Lotus eaters where some of his men were almost lost to the enchanting flower. Then came the island of the Cyclops. Odysseus led his men in to investigate and was trapped by Polyphemus, one of the Cyclop...

Saturday, November 23, 2019

The Outsiders by S.E. Hinton

The Outsiders by S.E. Hinton â€Å"I wished I looked like Paul Newman. He looks tough and I don’t. The other thing-it’s a long walk home with no company†¦And nobody in our gang digs movies and books the way I do. So I lone it† (Hinton, 1967, p.6). From this passage, it is evident that the main character, Ponyboy Curtis, who is fourteen years of age, will be telling the story from the first person perspective. This is important to the story because he describes the events in a slangy, youthful voice that makes his narration easily believable. Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on The Outsiders by S.E. Hinton specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More I liked this passage because it shows that though Ponyboy belongs to a gang, he is not stereotypical as he loves being alone in pursuit of his own interests. On the other hand, this passage does not interest me in the sense that Ponyboy wishes to be another person, instead of focu sing on his own strengths. The fact that Ponyboy regards himself as â€Å"superior,† despite his young age, to other gang members amazes me. so I can still help Darry with the bills and stuffTuff enough. Wait till I get outI told you he dont mean half of what he says (Hinton, 1967, page 26). This phrase illustrates the method of communication between the gang members. Since they speak in street slang, this illustrates that the two rival groups of the greasers and the Socs share some things in common. This potential for agreement is important for the story since the reader can feel the aversion between the two teenage groups when they are engaging in a conversation. I like this method of communication because it is able to harmonize the division between the groups. However, I hate it because it is full of grammatical errors. Though the interpretation of this street slang may be difficult, it is an interesting youthful way of talking. â€Å"I could fall in love with Dallas Wi nston. I hope I never see him again, or I will† (Hinton, 1967, p.46). This quote is what Cheery told Ponyboy when they were having a conversation in chapter three. I like this conversation since it shows that Dallas Winston, the meanest person, could make a lady, like Cherry-a Soc girl with good habits, like him. This also amuses me as well. I hate the words Cheery uses in this instance because she seems not to be considering the personality of Dallas. She is simply speaking because she has been driven by emotions. Cherry’s attraction to Dallas is of essence in the story since it illustrates that the conflict between the two teenage groups is reconcilable. â€Å"I had to. They were drowning you, Pony. They might have killed you. And they had a blade†¦ they were gonna beat me up†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Hinton, 1967, p.57). These words were spoken by Johnny to Pony. I liked this phrase because it shows the sincerity in Johnny. Although he had killed Bob, he only did so to d efend himself, otherwise he could have been killed instead. Advertising Looking for research paper on american literature? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More One thing I hate about this incidence is that instead of finding an easier way of solving the problem, Johnny, a greaser, opted to commit murder. It is sad that Bob, who played a critical role in defending the Socs, lost his life in such an unfortunate way. The death of Bob increased the rivalry between the two contending gangs. Ponyboy thinks, â€Å"That was the first time I realized the extent of Johnnys hero-worship for Dallas Winston† (Hinton, 1967, p.76). This is another phrase that captures my attention in the novel. After reading Gone with the Wind, the boys come to terms with what they are going through. I like this phrase because the book managed to open Ponyboy’s eyes such that he was able to seen the extent to which Dallas has been idolize d. On the other hand, I doesn’t like the notion that the boys were unable to realize their own sense of worth by having a high esteem of the concerning the ideas of Dallas. The tension between the two rival groups continued to increased after Ponyboy and Johnny came to that abrupt realization. And, Dallas even started to walk around with an gun so as to threaten his enemies. â€Å"Greasers will still be greasers and Socs will still be Socs. Sometimes I think it’s the ones in the middle that are really the lucky stiffs† (Hinton, 1967, p.117). These words were spoken by Randy. He was informing Ponyboy that he will cease to engage in fights in the rumble. I find these words interesting because they signify the futility of the conflicts between the two groups. Randy brings a good point by suggesting that the recurring Soc-greaser conflict will make them unable to rise above their social identities. This message is important in the story since it signifies the soci oeconomic differences that were the root cause of the bitter rivalry between the two gang groups. These disparities between the social classes were the source of the tension between the greasers and the Socs. Reference List Hinton, S. E. The Outsiders. (1967). New York: Viking Press, Dell Publishing.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on The Outsiders by S.E. Hinton specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More

Thursday, November 21, 2019

Social work Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Social work - Essay Example The beauty of both theories is that both, almost in the same way, believe in the clients’ desire to solve the problems, and both aim to improve the problem solving skills of the clients, thus promoting independence instead of dependency. The Applicability with Diverse Groups The beauty of these two approaches, according to Hepworth, Rooney and GD Rooney et al (2009, p. 364) is their applicability with different groups, especially the poor, minority and ethnocultural groups. This is largely because they emphasise on the right of clients to identify issues and focus on empowering the marginalised clients. In addition, they are helpful in removing the barriers to multicultural clinical practices as they largely accept the clients’ view of problems. However, the advantage of crisis intervention strategy and task centered approach is their use with different populations. Researchers like James (2008, p. 39) are of the belief that crisis intervention has universal application to people of color as it is common for people of color to experience crisis and due to barriers of culture, ethnicity, and racism. By the time they seek help, the issue will be in a chronic state. This approach has six stages namely: defining the problem, ensuring client safety, providing support, examining alternatives, making plans, and obtaining commitment (ibid). Now, it becomes evident that both the approaches are highly beneficial tools in social work as both believe in the centeredness of individuals and both are based on the theory of empowering the clients to manage their situation themselves, thus promoting independence instead of dependency. Below are certain features that make these approaches more preferable in social situations. The Patient Centeredness Both the approaches are patient-centered in nature. The task centered approach believes in the ability of the clients to solve their problems themselves or to ameliorate their issues to a tolerable level. The task cent ered approach is based on the assumption that most people possess adequate skills and resources to solve their problems themselves. In addition, it is believed that people have their innate desire to solve their problems. Problems arise in individual, family or social spheres that can block the resolution of problems. The task centered approach believes that people have the inborn capabilities to solve their problems or to remodel the situation to a tolerable level. Similarly, crisis intervention method too is based on the assumption that intervention becomes necessary when an individual is not able to manage the disorganisation and confusion caused by a crisis. This too accepts the fact that crisis can arise in families, groups, communities, and nations. In fact, both the approaches concentrate on empowering the patient, improving the level of functioning, and developing a place for handling crisis. In addition, both believe in the active participation of clients and both are short -term in nature. The purpose of the two approaches is to regain the lost equilibrium in the client’s life. The specialty of these approaches is the total participation of the clients in the procedure, and the success of the approaches is fully dependent on the client’s readiness to perform the tasks they are assigned. In both the cases, once the tasks and goals are set, there are regular meetings to monitor progress and to offer support in the effort to achieve the goals. The skills at this juncture required for a social

Wednesday, November 20, 2019

Criminolgy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Criminolgy - Essay Example These diverse punishments will be examined in this paper. Traditional methods of punishment have â€Å"individual outcome goals of incapacitation, retribution, rehabilitation, and deterrence† (Osler, 253). Normally this means prison and monetary retribution. An example of a traditional method of punishment for larceny could be the amount stolen as the amount of restitution and two years in jail. This depends on the amount stolen. Most crimes have traditional methods of punishments, especially for violent crimes and repeat offenders. Violent crimes and repeat offenders are normally placed in prison to segregate the offender from society. Traditional methods of punishment fall into two categories. The first is judicial discretion. All crimes have traditional guidelines. For example, a first time drug conviction can have guidelines for one to ten years. That means the judge can sentence the defendant up to ten years and no more. The sentence is up to the judge. Mandatory sentences are sentences that the judge has to pass upon conviction. An example of mandatory sentencing is California’s three strikes. If a felon is convicted of three strikes or felonies, then they are sentenced to life in prison. The judge has to convict the felon to life, no matter what circumstances, or mitigating factors. The first category of traditional methods of punishment is preferred by defense attorneys. Mitigating factors can be considered when a judge has discretion. Examples of mitigating factors are battered woman syndrome, child abuse, passion, and poverty. While these factors might not sway every judge, some judges can be swayed. Susan Smith is a good example of a judge letting mitigating circumstances influences his decision. Smith was convicted of killing her two sons. However after learning Smith had been molested as a child and her father’s suicide, the judge sentenced her to life instead of death. When a judge has discretion,

Sunday, November 17, 2019

Charles Manson and the Tate-Labianca Murders Essay Example for Free

Charles Manson and the Tate-Labianca Murders Essay On August 9, 1969 the seven innocent victims of the Tate-LaBianca murders were senselessly slain by a vicious cult and their leader Charles Manson†¦ Manson’s childhood was a troubled one, he was born Charles Milles Maddox on November 12, 1934 to sixteen year old Kathleen Maddox in Cincinnati, Ohio. Shortly after his birth, his mother married William Manson which gave him the name that is so well known today. Manson never knew his birth father. Not much is known about him other than he was a â€Å"Colonel Scott† of Ashland, Kentucky. In 1939, Kathleen was sentenced to prison for armed robbery, and a young Charlie spent the majority of his youth living in the homes of relatives and numerous boys homes. At the age of nine Charlie started his criminal career by burglarizing homes and stealing cars. Manson’s first violent offense came in 1952 when he sodomized another boy while holding a razor blade to his throat during his stay at a reform school. He was released in 1954 at the age of nineteen and met a young woman  named Rosalie Willis. They married in 1955 and a year later had a son, Charles Manson Jr. One month after the birth of his son, Manson was arrested for stealing cars and sentenced to three years which he served in San Pedro, California; his wife filed for divorce. After his release in 1958, Manson made a living by pimping, stealing checks, and conning women out of money. During this time he met and married a woman by the name of Leona and had a second son named Charles Luthor Manson. Leona divorced Manson after he was arrested yet again in 1960 and sent to McNeil Island Penitentiary. While serving his six year sentence Manson met a man by the name of Alvin â€Å"Creepy† Karpis, who happened to be a former member of Ma Barker’s gang. Karpis taught Manson to play the steel guitar which led to his obsession with music. Manson devoted much of his time in prison to practicing and writing music and held the belief that he would be a famous musician. Upon his release on March 21, 1967, Manson moved to San Francisco, California and began to collect a following of people. In 1968, Manson and several of his followers drove to Southern California where he met Dennis Wilson of The Beach Boys. Through Wilson, Manson was introduced to Doris Day’s son Terry Melcher. Manson believed that Terry was just the person that could help further his music career and was very upset when things did not work out. During this time the Manson Family moved into Spahn Ranch where Charles started piecing together his own philosophy based on a number of different religions. According to his interpretations of Revelations 9 and the Beatles’ song Helter Skelter, Manson also believed that there was a race war that was to take place in the summer of 1969 during which all of the black people were going to slaughter the white people. When this â€Å"war† did not take place Manson told his Family that they should â€Å"show the blacks how to do it†. (Rosenberg, 2010) On August 8, 1969, Manson ordered several of his Family members to kill any people inside the house at 10050 Cielo Drive. This house formerly belonged to Terry Melcher but was now being rented by Sharon Tate and her husband Roman Polanski, who happened to be in Europe on business at the time. Manson told his followers to â€Å"do something witchy†. After midnight on August 9th, Tex Watson, Susan Atkins, Leslie Van Houten, Patricia Krenwinkel, and Linda Kasabian walked up to 10050 Cielo Drive where they brutally shot and stabbed their first five victims; Steven Parent, Voytek Frykowski, Abigail Folger, Jay Sebring and Sharon Tate. Tate was eight months pregnant with both her and Polanski’s first child. Manson criticized his followers on the â€Å"messy job† that was done and took them for a drive later that night to look for more victims. Early the next morning Leno and Rosemary LaBianca were stabbed to death. On the wall and refrigerator was written â€Å"Death to Pigs† and â€Å"Helter Skelter†. It took authorities several months to discover who was behind the attacks. On November 6, 1969, while being held on an unrelated charge, Family member Susan Atkins told a fellow inmate of her participation in the Tate murders. She also admitted to being the one who wrote â€Å"PIG† on the Polanski doo r with Sharon’s blood and a towel. It was not until July 24, 1970 that Charles Manson, along with Susan Atkins, Leslie Van Houten, and Patricia Krenwinkel stood trial for the murders. The women were three out of the five Family members involved in the crime. Manson insisted on representing himself at trial, Ronald Hughes was assigned as assisting council in the case and to represent the girls. In March, Hughes suggested that Manson bring in attorney Irving Kanarek, who was known for his obstructionism tactics. Manson agreed and two weeks before the trial began he introduced Kanarek as his council. Hughes then moved his primary defense to Leslie Van Houten, who was said to be the least devoted to Manson. The prosecution was led by Vincent Bugliosi; his main goal in the case was getting a first degree murder conviction for Charles Manson. He planned to accomplish this by proving that Manson dominated his Family, with the prosecution’s star witness Linda Kasabian. This would prove to be an easy accomplishment. Kasabian agreed to testify when the prosecution made a deal for her immunity. In 1969, Kasabian, the married mother of two who had left home â€Å"in search of God†, met and fell in love with who a friend had described as â€Å"a beautiful man named Charlie† (Linder, 2008). Six weeks after Kasabian had joined the Family, Charlie decided that it was â€Å"time for Helter Skelter† (Linder, 2008). She then rode with Tex and the other defendants to the Tate house and witnessed the horrific killings of Steven Parent, Abigail Folger, and Voytek Frykowski. Although Kasabian was present for the murders,  she did not enter the house nor did she directly participate in them. She was quoted as saying to Manson, â€Å"I’m not like you Charlie, I can’t kill anyone† (Linder, 2008). She later rode with Manson and the others to the LaBianca house where she stayed outside and did not see the murders. Three days after the murders took place Kasabian left the family to rejoin her husband. She later turned herself into police in order to tell her story. Before she was able to return home to her family, Kasabian took the witness stand. While on the stand for eighteen days, she testified to everything that was done or said from the moment they left the ranch until they returned after the LaBianca murders. Prior to the Manson trial, Hughes had never tried a case and it showed early in the trial. Although using his knowledge of the hippie culture, he was able to raise some questions about Linda Kasabian’s testimony by pointing out that she had used hallucinogenic drugs and believed she was a witch. He also questioned her credibility by stating that she believed in ESP and would get â€Å"vibrations† from Charlie. Hughes’ main goal in Van Houten’s defense was to separate her from the rest of the defendants by showing that she was not acting of her own free will but was being controlled by Manson. It was said that Manson was not happy with the defense Hughes was offering Van Houten. In the last weekend of Novem ber, Hughes failed to show up for court and was never seen alive again. His body was not found until four months later and was badly decomposed. At least two of Manson’s Family members claimed that it was a retaliation killing for Manson. On January 25, 1971 a jury found all four defendants guilty of first degree murder in the Tate-LaBianca case. Two months later in March the jury sentenced all four to death. However, the principal actor in these murders, Tex Watson was yet to be tried. After the murders Tex returned to Texas where he was later arrested. He fought the extradition proceedings just long enough to get his own trial. In October 1971 Charles â€Å"Tex† Watson was convicted of seven counts of first degree murder. He would have received the death penalty if it was not for the California ruling that the death penalty was unconstitutional which also converted all four of the previous defendant’s sentences to life in prison. The Tate-LaBianca case has been the topic of controversy since it started in 1970. Some people claim that the trials were biased based on the fact that Manson and his followers chose to live a â€Å"hippie† lifestyle which  included the use of a number of drugs as well as free sex amongst each other. There was also a statement that president Nixon made claiming that Charles Manson was guilty whether it was directly or indirectly. Nixon claimed that he said this in order to criticize the media for glorifying criminals. Whatever the reasoning was behind this remark the defense in the case attempted to use it to have the case thrown out stating that an unbiased jury was now impossible. The judge denied the request however, and the trial continued. Whether the jury was biased or not the fact remains that these five individuals are responsible for the killings of at least seven innocent people and possibly countless others and should be punished for their crimes. Reference: Linder, D. (2008). The Defendants and Other Key Figures. In Trial of Charles Manson. Retrieved from http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/manson/manson.html Linder, D. (2008). A Chronology and Selected Images. In Trial of Charles Manson. Retrieved from http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/manson/manson.html Rosenberg, J. (2010). Biography of Charles Manson. In 20th Century History [Biography]. Retrieved from http://history1900s.about.com/od/1960s/p/charlesmanson.htm Bardsley, M. (2010). The Trial. In Charles Manson and the Manson Family. Retrieved from http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/serial_killers/notorious/manson/2.html

Friday, November 15, 2019

The Fight for Sanity in The Yellow Wallpaper -- Yellow Wallpaper essay

The Fight for Sanity in The Yellow Wallpaper      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Charlotte Perkins Gilman's The Yellow Wallpaper is partly autobiographical and it illustrates the fight for selfhood by a women in an oppressed and oppressive environment.   In the story, the narrator is not allowed to write or think, basically becoming more dysfunctional as she is entrapped in a former nursery room where bars adorn the windows and the bed is nailed to the floor.   In this story there is an obstinacy on behalf of the narrator as she tries to go around her husband's and physician's restrictions, however, there is no resisting the oppressive nature of her environment and she finally surrenders to madness even though it represents some kind of selfhood and resistance because it allows her to escape her oppression, "She obsesses about the yellow wallpaper, in which she sees frightful patterns and an imprisoned female figure trying to emerge.   The narrator finally escapes from her controlling husband and the intolerable confines of her existenc e by a final descent into insanity as she peels the wallpaper off and bars her husband from the room" (Gilman, 1999, 1).    Gilman herself suffered from post-partum hysteria and was treated by a famous doctor of the era, one who prescribed his famous "rest cure", the same cure the female narrator cannot tolerate and defies in The Yellow Wallpaper.   In this story the narrator remains nameless and there is good reason for it.   She feels as if she has no identity or control over obtaining fulfillment and unity and satisfaction in life.   Her husband is a doctor who also prescribes complete rest for her and is opposed to her doing the one thing that seems to give her a unique voice, writing.   Thus, the narrator defies her... ...ation of the personality)" (Brown, 1999, 1).   Gilman shows how this descent is inevitable in such an oppressive environment, unless, of course, one is as strong as Gilman herself in overcoming such an environment.      Works Cited The Yellow Wallpaper. http://members.aol.com/luvthebard/111/yellowwallpaper.html, Aug. 2, 1999, 1-2. Brown, B. D.   A Psychological Approach to Charlotte Perkins Gilman's The Yellow Wallpaper. http://www.usinternet.com/users/bdbourn/yellow.htm, Aug. 2, 1999, 1-2. Dewey, J.   Art and Education: A Collection of Essays.   Pennsylvania, The Barnes Foundation Press, 1954. Gilman, C. P.   Charlotte Perkins Gilman Reader.   New York, Pantheon Books, 1980. Gilman, C. P. Charlotte Perkins Gilman:   The Yellow Wallpaper. http://endeavor.med.nyu.edu/lit-med/lit-med-db/webdocs/webdescrips/gilman87-des-.html, Aug. 2, 1999, 1-2.   

Tuesday, November 12, 2019

Negotiation and Culture: Case Study

Culture and Negotiations Why do Japanese negotiators behave in the manner they do? How does culture affect negotiating behavior and outcomes? MASTER THESIS Author’s name: Patrycja J. Krause Student’s number: 258891 Academic advisor: Soren O. Hilligsoe Faculty of English Aarhus School of Business May 2006 I would like to thank my Mom, Barbara, for her understanding, encouragement and eternal support, as well as my advisor, Soren O. Hilligsoe, for his academic help, advice and faith in me keeping my deadline! Patrycja J.Krause Aarhus, May 2006 In loving memory of my Dad, Wladyslaw, for showing me the world – this one is for you. 2 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 5. 1 5. 2 5. 3 5. 4 5. 5 6. 7. 8. INTRODUCTION METHOD WHY JAPAN? DEFINITION OF CULTURE AND VALUES HOFSTEDE’S VALUE DIMENSIONS POWER DISTANCE UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE COLLECTIVISM VERSUS INDIVIDUALISM FEMININITY VERSUS MASCULINITY LONG-TERM VERSUS SHORT-TERM ORIENTATION CRITICAL PERSPECTIVES ON HOFSTEDE EDWARD HALL CULTU RAL DIMENSIONS 4 6 7 9 11 12 13 13 14 15 15 16 19 20 21 23 25 26 28 30 40 43 47 59 61 64 65 . 1 CONFUCIANISM 8. 2 IE 8. 3 THE WA-CONCEPT 8. 4 ISOLATION 8. 5 UNIQUENESS 8. 6 WESTERN INFLUENCE 9. 9. 1 10. 11. 12. 13. JAPANESE NEGOTIATOR THE NANIWABUSHI STRATEGY BRETT & USUNIER CASE STUDIES CONCLUSION SUMMARY REFERENCES APPENDIX 3 1. Introduction This paper wants to provide a culture-based explanation, examination and analysis as to why Japanese negotiators behave in the manner they do in negotiation, as well as how culture affects negotiations and their outcome.The paper is, due to the focus on cultural differences, solely dealing with international negotiations. This paper is focusing on the cultural aspect of the negotiation, which is only one piece of a larger puzzle, but it is a crucial and decisive piece. It is now widely accepted that culture indeed has an affect on negotiation and its outcome, which reflects a given culture and the underlying values and beliefs that are central and fundamental in a culture.The culture can be defined as being both behavior, a meaning system and a communication style, and there is a link between the dominant world view present in a given culture (Japan), and the negotiating style that appears to be characteristic of that culture. This paper is not to depict a stereotypical image of a Japanese negotiator, but merely to show that culture indeed does influence the behavior, negotiations and their outcome. It should also be kept in mind that (a) the negotiation is a universal process, and (b) there are a number of contextual factors that too have an impact on the cultures’ impact on the negotiation – e. . the nature of the other party (member of an in-group or an out-group), and the individual difference, although a member of a collectivistic culture tends to suppress his personality and individuality in order to maintain group harmony. This paper is to focus on a Japanese negotiator, who is dominated by his cultu ral values, and his interaction (in a negotiation) with a member of an out-group (foreigners and people that do not have a long term relationship with the Japanese negotiator), and a member of the in-group (fellow Japanese with established long-term relationships).Several studies and surveys (e. g. Brett and Usunier) have shown that culture does affect the negotiation process and the final agreement or outcome of the negotiations. Nevertheless, while there have been a number of studies that have explored the behavior of negotiators from different cultures, only very few have dealt with the underlying reasons – why people from a given culture behave the way they do.Additionally, most theorists and scholars have relied on the value dimensions index, depicting the differences between cultures, developed by Hofstede between 1968 and 1973. Hofstede’s research has undoubtedly helped people understand other cultures, but there is also a need to understand the underlying reaso ns why people from a given culture behave the way they do – the so-called mental frames that are shaping the behavior of Japanese negotiators. 4Otherwise, negotiators tend to create their own interpretation of the behavior of the other party, which without the necessarily cultural knowledge may lead to prejudices and ultimately lack of trust (Gudykunst & Kim, 2003: 125-160). For instance, trust in individualistic societies is based on the fact that a promise that will be implemented on a specific time or day, whereas trust in collectivistic societies is based on emotions and relationships as well as on sacrifice.The other party may thus think the Japanese negotiator do not want to reach an agreement within a week because they are difficult and want to sabotage the negotiation or untrustworthy, rather than the Japanese are relationship oriented rather than task oriented. They thus want to establish a relationship before they reach an agreement and need more time in order to re ach an agreement because it is based on group consensus. The paper starts by giving a definition and an analysis of culture and values in general in order to delimit and define the cultural framework that is the fundament of this paper.The culture and values of Japan are then to be described and discussed in order to show which cultural factors and dimensions in Japan determine and influence the Japanese negotiator, as well as serving as a an introductory guide to Japanese culture and society – hopefully, the guide will present both useful and interesting knowledge to all those interested in cross-cultural negotiations and intercultural communication. Two frameworks are presented and used in order to gain deeper behavior knowledge of culture: Hofstede’s Cultural Dimension and Hall’s Silent Language and Beyond Culture.Next, the paper discusses and analyzes Japanese negotiating styles and techniques 1 , and how they are influenced by the Japanese culture and cultu ral values. For this purpose, different aspects of verbal and non-verbal communication are to be discussed as well, and the paper is to analyze the meaning of these aspects in the context of negotiations. Finally, the paper is to take a look at two real life cases involving Japanese negotiators in order to illustrate behavior patterns and negotiation styles and techniques of Japanese negotiators.The author of this paper would argue that in an increasingly interdependent world, the ability to negotiate successfully is an important skill, and understanding the mindset and the behavior of the Japanese negotiator is essential and fundamental for successful negotiations. 1 Mainly focusing on the male negotiator, being the dominant player during negotiations in Japan. 5 Being aware of the reasons why the Japanese negotiator behaves and communicates they way he does, one may be less surprised or shocked by Japanese behavior, and may be better at focusing on, and handling, the negotiation i tself.Knowledge of culture and cultural values of the other party works as an uncertainty avoidance in negotiations, and helps building trust in stead of tarnishing it with prejudices, which ultimately leads to a dead lock or even break downs. 2. Method The research concerning this paper was mainly carried out in the form of a desktop study method – all the data were carefully collected mainly from secondary sources, such as, studies, surveys, as well as statistics and articles.The paper is culture-based, and the chosen data depict this approach – all the scholars referred quoted and referred to are specializing in culture, intercultural communication, as well negotiating. In order to give a general overview of the Japanese culture as well as to determine what type of values are predominant in Japan, the paper refers to and applies Hofstede’s five value dimensions index – masculinity/femininity, collectivism/individualism, uncertainty avoidance, long-term versus short-term orientation and power distance.Additionally, the paper is also to refer to Hall’s theory on the difference between high and low context and cultures, and the concept of Chronemics, in order to identify the Japanese culture and how these differences and concepts influence a negotiation. Also, several historical concepts (e. g. the ie-concept, geographical isolation, Western influence, etc. and Confucianism, which is one of the cultural dimensions that have influenced the Japanese worldview, are to be described and discussed in order to explain why the Japanese negotiator behaves in the manner he does, and how the historical events and Confucianism affect the culture and the behavior in Japan. Hofstede’s work has been criticized over the years for being incomplete, static and too narrow. The paper is thus to discuss the critical perspectives on Hofstede in order to show that the author has been aware of the possible disadvantages, when using Hofstedeâ €™s five value dimensions index. Additionally, Brett and Usunier are also discussed in the paper when dealing with the connection and interaction between culture and negotiation – how does culture affect negotiations. Both Brett and Usunier argue that in order to reach an agreement, the negotiators need to be aware of each other’s culture and cultural values, as well as understand the reasons for the way the other part behaves during negotiations. Finally, two real life case studies have been analyzed in order to depict the culture-based theory described and discussed in this paper.The reason for using case studies was to give a more holistic portrayal of a Japanese negotiator, while analyzing the contents by seeking patterns and themes in the data while referring them to the culture-based theory (e. g. culture and values and how they influence ones behavior and negotiating style) in this paper. Additionally, using case study is the best way to obtain data for anal ysis when one is not able to make actual field studies by observing Japanese negotiators in action. Both case studies depict the Japanese negotiators interacting and negotiating with members of an out-group, the Americans.This is due to the fact that the author of this paper would argue that when observing two different cultures one observes reactions that may not be present when both parties had the same cultural background, which would ultimately result in a smoother negotiation. Additionally, this paper deals with international negotiations and the importance of knowing and understanding the other party’s culture and cultural values. The case studies are thus used to highlight the focus of the paper – why Japanese negotiators behave in the manner they do in a negotiation, as well as how culture affects negotiations and their outcome. . Why Japan? The author of this paper has chosen to focus on Japan and the cultural values and behavior of a Japanese negotiator due t o the following factor: Japan’s consumer market. In order to know how attractive Japan is as a business associate, and thus how important it is to know the Japanese culture and negation behavior in order to win the market and succeed in the country, a brief description of the Japanese consumer market will now be given – its size, its consumers and its products.Japan is a closely populated and highly urbanized country with one of the most powerful economies in the world, currently amongst the top three economies in the world, although still rebounding from the collapse of the country’s economy back in 1991. 7 According to the Statistical Handbook of Japan, consumption expenditures increased by approximately 0. 5 percent in real terms due to such factors as the indication of an economic recovery and improvement in consumer sentiment (Statistical Handbook of Japan, 2005 2 : 158).Statistical Handbook of Japan states: As of May 2005, the excellent performance of the corporate sector is continuing, and overall business is recovering gradually. Recovery of employment is lagging slightly. However, the unemployment rate, which was 5. 4 percent in 2002, recovered to 4. 4 percent in May 2005. As seen in this state of affairs, there is some improvement, although harshness still remains. The growth of consumer spending, which slowed between the end of 2004 and early 2005, is showing signs of a resurgence (Statistical Handbook of Japan, 2005: 33 3 ).Due to its geographical nature, Japan cannot supply all its needs for raw material for energy and fuel, metal products, and foods from indigenous resources, and is thus dependent on overseas supplies. In 1996 Japan had an overall deficit in food of about 30 % – in 2003 it was approximately 40 %. According to Statistical Handbook of Japan, the present food self-sufficiency rate of Japan is the lowest among major industrialized countries, so Japan has thus become the world's largest food importing natio n (Statistical Handbook of Japan, 2005: 69 4 ).This makes Japan an attractive market with its 127 million consumers, where women are a majority and retired people outnumber the youngest age strata, and are thus the most significant consumer group (Reischauer, 1995: 25). Additionally, the Japanese are well educated and households have a fairly disposable income, in which the majority of it is spent on food. According to the 2004 Family Income and Expenditure Survey, monthly consumption expenditure averaged ? 304,203per household with two or more family members excluding single-member households (Statistical Handbook of Japan, 2005: 158 5 ). Appendix 1 – Household 3 Appendix 2 – Economy 4 Appendix 3 – Agriculture 5 Appendix 1 – Household 8 Japan is the world’s largest net importer of agriculture and food products (in 2003 alone, the country has imported over 60 % of its food supplies), amounting to US$ 40 to 50 billion annually. Thus, the Japanese fo od market is powerful but demanding (Agri-Food Country Profile: Japan, 2003: 1 6 ). Needless to say, it is a relatively difficult task to target a foreign, and rather remote, market as it may require extra resources and special cultural knowledge.Therefore, it is valuable to study the values and the culture of Japan before entering the country’s market in order to promote and sell a product. 4. Definition of Culture and Values This chapter is to describe and define culture and values in general in order to delimit and define the cultural framework that is the fundament of this paper. At first glace, the human race behaves more or less alike – we smile, laugh and cry. We talk, gesticulate, and perform actions. Nevertheless, our behavior is influenced by our cultures – through the norms and rules existing in our society.Our cultures also affect our communication through the individual characteristics we learn when we are socialized into our culture. In short, our culture provides us with a system of knowledge that generally allows us to know how to communicate with other members of our culture and how to interpret their behavior. Culture can thus be defined as an underlying framework that guides an individual’s perceptions of observed events and personal interaction, and thus directly influences what people will do and what they can do. In short, knowing and using culture and its many dimensions is a must know negotiating with foreigners.Culture includes all learned behavior and values that are transmitted through shared experience to an individual in a society. According to Sir Edward Taylor, a classic definition of culture is as follows: â€Å"Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by (individuals as members) of society. † (Taylor, 1871: 1). Culture is thus everything that people have (objects), think (ideas, values, attitudes, b eliefs), and do (behavior) as members of a particular society.Culture is made up of material objects, ideas, values and attitudes, and behavior patterns (Gudykunst & Kim, 2003: 14-19, Yokochi & Hall, 2001: 193). 6 Appendix 4 9 Additionally, according to Hall, a culture must have the following three characteristics: 1. It is learned; people over time transmit the culture of their group from one generation to another 2. It is interrelated; one part of a particular culture is deeply interconnected with another part – e. g. religion with marriage, or education and work with social status 3.It is shared; the basic concepts of a particular culture are accepted by most members of the group. In other words, culture develops through recurrent social relationships that form a pattern that is eventually adapted by members of the entire group, and transmitted to new members through the process of learning and interacting with ones environment and other members of ones culture (Hall, 1977 : 16). The most fundamental aspect of our culture consists of values. Values are acquired in the family, during the first years of our lives, further developed and confirmed in school, and einforced in work organizations and in life within a national cultural environment. Values determine what we consider to be good and evil, beautiful and ugly, natural and unnatural, rational and irrational, normal and abnormal (Ghauri & Usunier, 2003: 97-100, 137-138). Values too are a major influence and determination factor when it comes to behavior and communication during a negotiation. Values are defined by the particular culture, hence the importance of understanding the value concept and culture when negotiating with foreigners. One of the early U. S. esearches of values, Milton Rokeach, defines a value 7 as: â€Å"An enduring belief that one mode of conduct or end-state of existence is preferable to an opposing mode of conduct or end-state of existence†. According to Rokeach values are thus both guiding principles in life, and preferences for one mode of behavior over another. Values are depicted in the general norms of a culture (what is right and wrong), and they are depicted in what we want and what we consider important for ourselves. Values are also among the very first things children learn – implicitly – by observing the community, kyodotai in Japanese (e. . parents and people around them). 7 An attitude, on the other hand, refers to an organization of several beliefs around a specific object or situation. 10 According to the American development psychologist, Daniel Yankelovich, most important traditional values will remain firm and constant over time, and are thus stable and enduring through generations (de Mooij, 2004: 22-26). It is thus essential to remember that the intercultural communication and negotiation are never far from cultural considerations (Roth, 1982: 6).This assumption was mistakenly conceived from the converging technol ogy and the spread of the English language that was taking place globally (de Mooij, 2004: 1-18). One has to remember though that globalization is not an entirely new phenomenon. In fact, some would argue that it even dates back at least to the Marco Polo’s voyages in the 1300s, and the fundamental values of the many different cultures have not changed significantly since then. People still live in the local. We define ourselves by our differences.It’s called identity – self, family and nation† (de Mooij, 2004: 16). Human behavior is learned and growing up in a culture, a person is taught values, perceptions, wants and how to behave from the family and other institutions (Lasserre & Schutte, 1995: 49-59). For instance, in today’s Japan, group harmony is still dominating the nation's behavior, seniority by age is still respected, and promotion in most public and private organizations is based on the length of service, which is usually connected to th e age of the individual.Reciprocity is emphasized in social relations in order to maintain a long-lasting relationship. Values and traditions do not easily change in a society. 5. Hofstede’s value dimensions This chapter is to describe and discuss the Dutch professor, Geert Hofstede’s, value dimension index, which is based on the first international survey taking place in IBM in more than 50 different countries from 1968 to 1973 (Hofstede, 2001: xv), mainly focusing on Japan in order to determine what type of culture is present in Japan.According to Hofstede, the way people perceive and interpret their world varies along five dimensions, and are as follows: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, collectivism/individualism, and masculinity/femininity. Finally, Hofstede added a fifth dimension called long-term orientation in life versus short-term orientation. Each of the countries in Hofstede’s study has been ranked according to their scores in each dimension. 11 According to Hofstede a dimension is: â€Å"†¦an aspect of a culture that can be measured relative to other cultures. Additionally, Hofstede defines culture as: â€Å"The collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another† (Hofstede, 2001: 9). 5. 1 Power distance Power distance refers to the inequality among people, which the population of a country considers acceptable. There is inequality in all societies, and thus there will always be some people who have more power than other. In some cultures power is concentrated among a few people at the top, who make all the decisions, whereas people at the other end simply carry out these decisions.Such cultures are associated with high power distance levels. In other cultures, on the other hand, power is widely spread and relations among people are more equal. These are low power distance cultures. (Hofstede, 1991: 23) According to Hofstede’s value dimensio ns Japan scores 55 points – placing it in the middle of the index (Hofstede, 1991: 26). In countries which have a high power distance employees dislike to disagree with their superiors. Superiors are seen as paternalistic, and subordinates expect to be told what to do.There is also a large emotional distance between subordinates and their superiors (Hofstede, 1991: 28). When it comes to family and school, parents will teach children to be obedient and the children will treat their parents with respect, just as students will treat their teachers with respect. In high power distance societies inequalities among people are in general expected and desired (Hofstede, 1991: 37). In Japan this inequality is especially expressed in the oya-ko concept (literally meaning parentchild), which originally refers to a leader or a work group and its members.As work and home began to separate during the beginning of modern period of Japan oya and ko began to have a strictly kinship meaning â €“ with no economic aspect – such as it had until the Tokugawa period where the ie (extended household) was more than just a family or a kinship unit – it was an economic organization in which each of its members (not always related to each other by blood or marriage) contributed towards it (Harumi, 1971: 38-39). 12 5. 2 Uncertainty avoidance Uncertainty avoidance describes the need or lack of need a society has towards written or unwritten rules and how it deals with structured or unstructured situations.At the organizational level, uncertainty avoidance is related to factors such as rituals, rules, and employment stability. People in less structured cultures face the future without experiencing unnecessarily stress. The uncertainty associated with future events does not result in risk avoidance behavior. On the other hand, in cultures where people experience stress in dealing with future events, high uncertainty avoidance cultures, various steps are taken to cope with the impact of uncertainty: e. g. long-time planning in order to minimize the anxiety associated with future events.Japan scores 92 points and is seen as a country with high uncertainty avoidance, where there are many regulations and a strong etiquette in order to avoid uncertainty (Hofstede, 1991: 113). 5. 3 Collectivism versus individualism According to several researchers within the field of culture, individualism versus collectivism is one of the basic pattern variants that determine human action. It is a pattern that is visible in every day life, as well as being present in the interaction between people. Individualism indicates the degree to which people of a particular culture learn to act as individuals rather than as members of a group.It is essential to remember that all people and cultures posses both individual and collective traits, but at the same time one of these traits is always more dominant or more visible than the other (Samovar & Porter, 2004: 59). A typica l collectivistic culture distinguishes between in-groups (relatives, clans, and organizations), and out-groups (the rest of ones network). Ones’ in-groups can be defined as ones’ extended family – like the one found in the Japanese society throughout the history; also known as ie.People from individualistic cultures are self-centered, and feel relatively little need for dependency on others. They seek the fulfillment of their own goals over the goals over the groups. Additionally, people from individualistic cultures are competitive, and show little loyalty to the organizations for which they work. 13 People from collectivistic cultures, on the other hand, have a group mentality (with e. g. joint decision making), where they suppress and subordinate their goals for the sake of the group. They are interdependent on each other and seek mutual accommodation in order to maintain group harmony.People in a collectivistic culture expect that their in-groups will take c are of them and in return they owe the in-groups a great deal of loyalty and submission (Samovar & Porter, 2004: 61). Children who grow up in collectivistic societies are expected to show lifelong loyalty to the group (Hofstede, 1991: 50-51). In short, individualism versus collectivism, deals with the degree to which one thinks in terms of I versus we – either ties between individuals are loose or people are part of cohesive ingroup throughout their lives (Samovar & Porter, 2004: 61).Contrary to the stereotype, Japan actually ranks in the middle of this dimension, with 46 points – but is still defined as being a collectivistic culture (Hofstede, 1991: 67). An interesting theory stated by Kumon Shumpei, a Japanese anthropologist, characterizes Japanese as contextualists rather than collectivists, as is the case in both Hofstede and Hall’s studies. A contextualist retains a personal identity, which the collectivist probably loses, but this personal identity is vir tually inseparable from the contextual identity.Thus, the individual changes, depending on the context he is in or the people he is with. One of the arguments Kumon makes to support the theory is that most Japanese belong to in-groups in order to reach a self-realization. But one could argue that even in these â€Å"self-realization in-groups† the members strive to maintain harmony and act for the benefit of the group, making them predominantly collectivistic (Hendry, 1998: 22-39). 5. 4 Femininity versus masculinity One of the main differentiations between masculine and feminine cultures is how gender roles are distributed in cultures.Thus masculine cultures create clearly distinct gender roles; men are supposed to be self-confident, tough and concerned with the material aspect of life, whereas women are expected to be modest, tender and dealing with the quality of life. Thus according to Hofstede Japan is a highly masculine culture (Gudykunst & Kim, 2003: 77), whereas in mas culine countries both people are taught to be ambitious and competitive. It should be mentioned though that females’ ambitions are sometimes directed towards the achievements of their brothers and later in life their husbands and sons.According to Hofstede’s index, Japan is one of the more masculine countries, scoring 95 – ranking as number one (Hofstede, 1991: 96). 14 5. 5 Long-term versus short-term orientation Michael Harris Bond originally found the fifth dimension in the answers of student samples from 23 countries in 1985 in Hong Kong, and later it was incorporated by Hofstede in his value dimensions index. The reason why this dimension was not found in the original IBM data was due to the fact that the IBM questionnaires were composed from the minds and values of Westerners – whereas the fifth dimension was composed from the minds and values of Easterners.The fifth dimension, nevertheless, is present across all 23 cultures taking part in the survey (Hofstede, 2001: 71-73). Long-term orientation, also known as Confucian Dynamism, is composed of the following values: being determinate or firm, prudent, arranging relationships by status as well valuing interpersonal relationships, as well as having a sense of shame, saving ones face, having a great deal of respect for tradition and reciprocation of greetings, favors and gifts.Japan ranks as number 4 on the Long-term Orientation Index Values, with 80 points (Hofstede, 2001: 351356). 6. Critical perspectives on Hofstede There has been a great deal of critique of Hofstede’s value dimensions when dealing with culture analyses, which this paper will shortly discuss – simply to show that the author of this paper is indeed aware of the advantages as well as disadvantages when using Hofstede’s value dimensions in order to analyze a specific culture.One of the most recent Danish critical analyses was performed by Susan Baca at the Aalborg University where it is being argued that Hofstede’s IBM-based rapport which is supposed to depict characteristic traits visible in cultures cannot be used simply due to the fact that IBMemployees from a specific culture cannot be representative for the culture in question as a whole (Baca, 1999: 11). One can argue that since Hofstede published his IBM-based rapport several other culture-analytics (e. . Triandis, Brislin and Bond) have made further analyses, which do not exactly contradict Hofstede’s value dimensions. These analyses both support Hofstede’s dimensions, as well as having reached the same conclusions. One can also add that since the amount of IBM-employees amounted to hundreds of thousands it is only logical to conclude that one did find enough traits, which can be viewed as characteristic for the cultures in question. 15Another aspect of Hofstede’s survey-based value dimensions, which is being criticized is the fact that his model is static, and can ultimately not be u sed because surely the cultures in question studied by Hofstede must have changed over the time since he performed the survey from 1968 to 1973. This is one of the reasons why the paper is looking at the cultural and historical influence on Japanese behavior over time – in order to see if Hofstede’s value dimensions are still valid in the Japanese culture that this paper is dealing with.Susan Baca is also criticizing Hofstede for actually separating a given culture into several, isolated dimensions, strongly supported by Turner and Trompenaars. For instance, Hofstede is depicting the American culture as highly individualistic, but does not describe the interaction people have with each other among the different in-groups – and if one can categorize this interaction as being highly individualistic as well or not (Baca, 1999: 15). To this, the author of this paper can only say, using Hofstede’s own words that this paper’s main task is to study cultur es, and not individuals. (Hofstede, 2001: 15).Additionally, in order to back up Hofstede’s theory, this paper is also to refer to Hall’s theory on Chronemics as well as a more general cultural analysis of the Japanese culture. 7. Edward Hall Another cultural framework used in this paper in order to gain deeper behavior knowledge of the Japanese culture, is Hall’s concept of Chronemics as well as his theory on low-context and high-context cultures. According to the American sociologist, Edward Hall, the world is divided into monochronic and polychronic culture, also known as the concept of Chronemics. It is a nonverbal behavior that speaks to how people use time to communicate.Lateness, for example, can communicate messages of power (waiting in the doctor's office), attraction (arriving early for the first date), or identity (being â€Å"fashionably late†). Chronemics, like all other nonverbal behavior is culturally based. Different cultures have different rules governing the use and meaning of time. Hall's distinction between monochronic and polychronic cultures highlight the different ends of the cultural spectrums of how culture's view time. A culture’s conception of time can thus be examined from Hall’s monochronic and polychronic classifications. 16Monochronic cultures see time as a measurable, quantifiable entity, which is linear. Thus, being punctual, scheduling, planning tasks to match time frames are valued behaviors. In the monochronic culture time becomes a concrete and segmented reality where only one thing can be done at a time without interruptions. Additionally, in negotiations, monochronic people’s main focus is on goals, tasks and results, rather than relationships. Polychronic cultures, on the other hand, tend to view time as nonlinear – almost as a general guideline, which has no substance or structure. There is thus a circular or cyclical quality to time.Punctuality and scheduling is do ne but rarely found in monochronic cultures. Additionally, people from polychronic cultures are able to do many things at one time, and do not mind interruptions. Because time is not linear or segmented, matching specific activities with specific time frames is not done. Times and activities are fluid. Finally, in negotiations, polychronic people’s main focus is on relationships and people. Japan belongs to the polychronic cultures. In a negotiation context, the Japanese want to get to know their business counterparts, and they feel that the best way to do so is by engaging in long conversations with them.This reflects the fact that the Japanese culture is long-term relationship oriented. Negotiators from polychronic cultures are thus relationship-focused. Monochronic and polychronic time orientations tend to produce two other significant cultural phenomena: the difference between high and low context cultures, which refers to the fact that when people communicate, they take for granted how much the listener knows about the subject under discussion. Negotiators from monochronic cultures are thus deal-focused. Although Edward T.Hall classified Japan as a polychronic culture, Gesteland argues that the Japanese business people expect strict punctuality in meetings and close adherence to schedule. Punctuality in Japan might be ruled by the high level of uncertainty avoidance and the maintenance of group harmony, which is essential for the Japanese culture. Hall also discusses and distinguishes between high-context and low-context cultures. He views meaning and context as being interconnected. The difference between high and low context cultures depends on how much meaning is found in the context versus in the code. 17One can think of â€Å"code† as the message, and of â€Å"context† as setting or circumstance, including the people, in which the message appeared. In low-context communication, the listener knows very little and must be informed about every detail. In high-context communication, on the other hand, the listener is already ‘contexted', and does not need to be given much background information. According to Hall, low-context cultures, such as the American culture, tend to place more meaning in the language code and very little meaning in the context. Communication tends thus to be specific, explicit, and analytical.In analyzing messages, low-context cultures tend to focus on â€Å"what was said† and give literal meaning to each word. Low-context cultures tend to use a direct verbal-expression style in which the situation context is not emphasized, important information is usually carried in explicit verbal messages, people tend to directly express their opinions and intend to persuade others to accept their viewpoints, and self-expression, verbal fluency, and eloquent speech are valued. In high-context cultures, on the other hand, such as the Japanese culture, meaning is embedded more in the conte xt rather than the code.In this case, â€Å"what was said† cannot be understood by the words alone – one has to look at who said it, when they said it, where they said it, how they said it, the circumstances in which they said it, and to whom they said it. Each variable will thus help define the meaning of â€Å"what was said. † Hall states: People raised in high-context systems expect more from others than do the participants in lowcontext systems. When talking about something that they have on their minds, a high-context individual will expect his interlocutor to know what's bothering him, so that he doesn't have to be specific.The result is that he will talk around and around the point, in effect putting all the pieces in place except the crucial one (Hall: 1977, p. 98). This is also the case with the behavior of a Japanese negotiator – he expects the other party to know exactly what he wants to obtain from the negotiation, and what type of a deal he i s looking for. 18 In short, the difference between high and low context cultures depends on how much meaning is found in the context versus in the code, or, in high-context exchanges, much of the â€Å"burden of meaning† appears to fall on the listener.In low context cultures, the burden appears to fall on the speaker to accurately and thoroughly convey the meaning in her spoken or written message. Conclusively, according to Hall, Japan and the Japanese negotiator belongs to the polychronic culture type. Thus, in a negotiation context, the Japanese want to get to know their business counterparts by engaging in long conversations with them. This again reflects the fact that the Japanese culture is long-term relationship oriented. Additionally, Japan is a high-context culture, where meaning is embedded more in the context rather than the code.Japanese negotiators expect thus more from the other party and when something is bothering them, they tend to express this indirectly (fo r instance by using silence) (Cohen, 1997: 159-160, Rowland, 1993: 68-69). Finally, although Edward T. Hall classified Japan as a polychronic culture, Gesteland argues that the Japanese business people expect strict punctuality in meetings and close adherence to schedule. Punctuality in Japan might be ruled by the high level of uncertainty avoidance and the maintenance of group harmony, which is essential for the Japanese culture (Hall, 1973, 1977, Gudykunst & Kim, 2003: 69, 179-180). 8.Cultural Dimensions This chapter is to discuss and analyze which values and cultural dimensions that are present and dominant in Japan in order to understand the behavior of a Japanese negotiator: Confucianism Ie The WA-concept Isolation – geographical & political Uniqueness Western influence 19 8. 1 Confucianism The cultural perspective has for some time provided the dominant paradigm in comparative studies management, organization and cross-cultural negotiations. Even before Hofstede’ s survey on cultural values, international studies of organization generally regarded culture as the key explanatory factor for cross-cultural differences.One of the most important influences on Japanese everyday life, culture and behavior was, and still is, Confucianism, which entered Japan via Korea in the 5th Century. Japanese culture and behavior reflect the values of collectivism and harmony, and are highly inspired and influenced by Confucianism. Confucius (Kongzi, 551-479 BC) writing around the time of Socrates but a while before Jesus Christ, based his ideas on absolute respect for tradition, on a strict hierarchy of primary relationships between family-members, and then again between the people and their rulers.His philosophy was intended to guide people’s everyday life, to regulate social behavior, and it established a mode of thought and habit that has persisted and that blended well with other belief systems that were and still are present in Japan, such as Buddhi sm and Shinto. The central concepts of the Confucian ethic were summarized in the Three Cardinal Relationships: ruler guides subject, father guides son, and husband guides wife), five constant virtues (benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and fidelity, and the doctrine of the mean (harmony). In this teaching, emphasis is on the obligation of the inferior to the superior.The assumption is that society needs a hierarchical order in which every individual has his or her own place, and the peace and harmony prevail if everyone follows the proper manner of conduct. These concepts are the fundament of the Japanese society to this very day. Also, the Confucian teachings emphasized uprightness, righteousness, loyalty, sincerity, reciprocity, and benevolence as personal virtues. The principle of filial piety was especially useful during the Tokugawa period when family was the social and economic unity of society. Occupation and property belonged to the family.Continuation of the fa mily line was thus a primary concern because it was a necessity for keeping ones position and income. Individuals often sacrificed their happiness to ensure survival of the family. After Japan was centralized under the Meiji government in the 19th century, the concept of filial piety was expended to embrace the idea of loyalty to the emperor, who was regarded as the father of the nation. 20 The Confucian concepts of hierarchy in human society and respect for age were useful in the feudal society, also during the Tokugawa period, which was structured hierarchically.Its stability rested on individual’s dutiful fulfillment of obligations to their superiors and maintenance of proper conduct in daily life. The general rules of conduct were respect for seniors in social rank and age, and acknowledgement of the superiority of man over women. Additionally, Confucius laid down that Ren or benevolence was the supreme virtue the follower can attain. As a strictly natural and humanistic love, it was based upon spontaneous feelings cultivated through education. In order to attain Ren, you have to practice Li, which represents social norms.The latter can be interpreted as rituals, rites or proprieties and includes all moral codes and social institutions. As Li is a term for moral codes and social institutions, one could assume that the practice of Li is to enforce social conformity at the cost of the individual. However, an individual personality is not an entity cut off from the group. According to Confucius, in order to establish one self, one has to establish others. There is interdependence between the individual and the group that is essential in order to create harmony.The strong Japanese cultural preference for basing business transactions upon the quality of inter-personal relationships and for settling disputes through mediation rather than relying upon contracts and legal process can be seen to stem from this philosophy (McGreal: 1995). According to Confuci us, all societies deal with survival, production, distribution, and consumption – yet they all develop different systems in order to survive and obtain their ultimate goals and aims. Things have changed in the Japanese society when it comes to material and technological development.As far as human relations and communication with foreigners are concerned, things have not changed. One can say that Japan has modernized, but it has not westernized just yet (Kodansha, 1994: 202-218, McGreal, 1995: 5-7, Cohen, 1997: 159-160, Gudykunst & Kim, 2003: 80, 119, 217, Samovar & Porter, 2004: 213-217). 8. 2 Ie Japan is a Shinto, Confucianism and Zen Buddhism inspired culture, Confucianism being the fundament, where everything and everyone is connected and relies on each other in order to exist. 21The concept of ie, or extended household/kinship unit in traditional Japan, thus containing more than close family members all living under the same roof – and under the authority of one m ale, describes this way of thinking, or the Japanese values, the best. The main focus in ie is on in-group benefits, harmony and family – where interdependence and togetherness is essential (de Mooij, 2004: 100-1003, Harumi, 1971). Although the ie-concept does not formally exist in the original form 8 , as it did during the pre-modern or feudal Japan, one still finds it in the underlying values of the Japanese people.The ie-concept 9 became dominant and visible during the Edo or Tokugawa period (16001867), where a strict political regime was introduced by the Tokugawa family, who, besides retaining large estates, also took control of major cities, ports and mines in Japan. Under Tokugawa rule, Japan entered a period of national seclusion (sakoku), where the Japanese were forbidden to travel to or return from overseas or to trade abroad. Only the Dutch, Chinese and Koreans were allowed to remain and they were placed under strict supervision.Additionally, to ensure political se curity, the daimyo were required to make ceremonial visits to Edo every other year, and their wives and children were kept in permanent residence in Edo as virtual hostages of the government. The cost of this constant movement and the family ties in Edo made it difficult for the daimyo to remain anything but loyal. At the lower end of society, farmers were subject to a severe system of rules, which dictated their food, clothing and housing. Social mobility from one class to another was blocked – social standing was determined by birth.Additionally, women in the Japanese society were fully submitted men 10 . Women were submitted either their fathers, husbands or in the case of widows, their eldest son – with no legal rights. Ie means extended household – thus containing more than close family members all living under the same roof – and under the authority of one male. Ie was formally abolished in 1947 with the introduction of the New Constitution, which p rescribed a more â€Å"Democratic† family system based on equal rights of husbands and wives. Inspired by Confucianism. 10 This submission was further supported by the Civil Code of 1898, which placed women in the family under the authority of men. 8 22 The patriarchal family structure, ie, was officially abandoned in 1947, but one can still sense its presence, in a revised form, in today’s Japanese society – both in the corporal system where the chief executive is the male, who has been working for the company longest time, and in family life where women take care of children and men provide for the well-being of the amily. Nevertheless, the rigid emphasis of these times on submitting unquestionably to rules of obedience and loyalty has lasted to the present day. Today the ie-concept is still visible in that Japanese businessmen do not entertain their business associates at home. There is both a practical and a social reason for not doing so. First of all, the typical Japanese home is small and a larger group of people simply cannot fit in. Second,† Home† for the Japanese is very private.It is generally only open to relatives, long-time friends, children’s friends and their own family – the so-called in-group. Additionally, salary has for many years been linked to the age of employees until they entered their forties to fifties age – a male worker had thus a lifetime-employment guarantee until they reached their fifties. However, this system does not operate in small-business sector. The seniority system is one of the special characteristics of Japanese employment practices.Since the 1990s, however, there has been a substantial increase in the number of companies, who are reconsidering this type of employment system, and progress is being made in introducing a new compensation system based on employee’s performance rather than their age and the amount of time they have worked for the company in ques tion (Sugimoto, 1997: 80, Kodansha, 1994: 117-118, Hendry, 1998: 22-39). In short, ie puts an emphasis upon continuity, succession practices, and some of the socioreligious (e. . volunteer organizations such as environmental movement groups) functions that still occupy an important place in Japan today (Refsing, 1990, 11-25, Bando, 1980: 27-29, Hendry, 1998: 22-39, Harumi, 1971: 38-39, Sugimoto, 1997: 80, Kodansha, 1994: 117-118) 8. 3 The Wa-concept According to Wierzbicka, cultural values and behavior of a particular culture can be found in a core concept. For Japan this core concept is wa, which means harmony, unity or the desire to be one with those of your in-group.The wa-concept illustrates the concept, with several aspects (please see below), that although people have differences, it is the most convenient when people want the same thing at the deepest level. 23 This deep level of sharing underlies the desire for harmony at the interpersonal level, as well as a high level of c onsideration of others within ones group, and creates a unity among members of the in-group. In Japan, individuals are thus expected to act in ways that protect the unity or wa of the in-group (Wierzbicka, 1992).The several aspects, which the Wa-concept consists of, are described and discussed below: Enryo is an aspect that is encompassed in wa, illustrates the effort of avoiding explicit opinions, assessments, or other displays of personal feelings. It is thus a form of self-restraint that proscribes the brining of attention to oneself and ones personal desires in order to avoid having others think badly of one. Japan has been categorized as a high-context culture, and in a communicative context, the meaning is often implicit. The focus is thus on the listener and his or her ability to understand implicit messages.Sasshi refers thus to the ability to guess or intuit another person’s meaning without that person having to express it directly. Implicit communication is essentia l in a collective culture where maintaining harmony and avoiding conflicts is essential. Amae refers to a form of mutual dependency, or a relationship in which one person is in a protective stance toward another (Wierzbicka, 1992). The desire for amae motivates one to belong to a group and depend on another person. Amae emphasizes thus a protective relationship and a mutual dependency between the members of the in-group.Giri refers to a type of obligation felt toward others who have done something good for the person. According to Befu, it is a â€Å"moral imperative to perform ones duties toward members of ones group† (Befu, 1986: 162). It is also a long-term relationship and a sense that one will be forever in the other person’s debt. This sense of obligation is very typical in a culture that stresses the wa-concept as well as in collectivist cultures, where members of the in-group are closely tied to each other. Awase refers to the ability to always be able to adjus t to the situation or the circumstances.The self is thus constantly changing and moving with the situation, whereas the group is constant and needs to be maintained. Thus, maintaining wa equals being flexible in situations, and not on consistently following ones principles. 24 Kenson involves discounting ones abilities and to avoid standing out in order to maintain the status quo of a relationship. Kenson is sometimes manifested in a verbal apology, and it demonstrates a desire not to disturb the nature of the relationship, and a desire to maintain group harmony.For instance, a speaker may begin his or her speech by apologizing to the audience for his or her low status or insufficient knowledge on the topic – this depicts humility. Kata refers to the constant and familiar way something is done. In Japan, there is a kata or form for almost everything – from the way one plays ball to the way one performs a tea ceremony. The Japanese thus value form over function and proc ess over outcome – an important element to remember when involved in negotiations with the Japanese.This again refers to the uncertainty-avoidance that is present in the Japanese culture, which illustrates itself in the form of strict rules and regulation (Wierzbicka, 1992, Gudykunst & Kim, 2003: 5354). 8. 4 Isolation Another dimension characterizing Japan is the historical separateness of Japan from the rest of the world 11 , and the strong belief in the uniqueness of the Japanese culture and society. Its distance from the Asian continent and from the rest of the world had a crucial influence over the formation of the Japanese society and culture.The isolation began during the Tokugawa period when the Tokugawa government was trying to create relative peace and security. Instead, the government was facing stagnation, corruption and isolation. Famines and poverty among the peasants and samurai weakened the system even further. Additionally, foreign ships (from Russia, Britain and the USA) started to examine Japan’s isolation with increasing insistence, and Japan realized that their defenses were outdated and ineffective. In 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry of the US Navy arrived with his famous â€Å"black ships† to demand the opening of Japan to trade, followed y other countries. This resulted in a stream of antigovernment feeling among the Japanese due to the fact that it failed to defend Japan against foreigners and of neglecting the national reconstruction and modernization. 11 The first contact with the West occurred about 1542, when a Portuguese ship, blown off its course to China, landed in Japan. 25 After 200 years of total isolation from the outside world – due to the fear of Western and Christian invasion or superiority, Japan agreed to open the country to the outside world.Nevertheless, 200 years of isolation has resulted in a rather great amount of regulations, etc. (one may argue that this is a hidden form of protectionism) that are there in order to adopt an e. g. Western product to the needs and circumstances of the Japanese culture. This separateness, or isolation, has also caused the Japanese to be extremely aware of anything that comes from outside, and they thus strongly distinguish between foreign and native culture, as well as its products and innovations (Reischauer, 1995: 32, Kodansha, 1994: 32-37, 131-132, Wakaba, 1996: 4-12). 8. 5Uniqueness The Japanese people have long believed that they are the children or descendants of gods, living in a divinely land. In the 18th century, the scholar, Motoori Norinaga, was responsible for resurrecting ancient myths about Japan and the Japanese. Before Norinaga’s time, Japanese scholar viewed China and its civilization as the most important in the world. Norinaga attacked this view, claiming that Japan was superior to any other country in the world. According to him, Japan was the country where the Sun Goddess was born, making it the epicenter of all other nations.With the appearance from the early 19th century of Russian, British, and other foreign ships in the waters of Japan, there was an intense debate on how to react, since the country had had a policy of isolation from the rest of the world for two hundred years. The military government thus attempted to promote hate and fear of foreigners by law 12 . In 1825, Expulsion Edict was implemented, prohibiting all barbarians and Westerners from entering Japan. If a foreign ship was seen, it was fired upon and driven off. If foreigners went ashore, they were captured and their ship destroyed. 2 Antiforeign attitudes in Japan have generally been limited to the official level. 26 The belief in superiority and uniqueness of all things Japanese have weakened but not entirely disappeared in the present-day Japan. Although this extraordinarily chauvinistic mentality was temporarily restrained after the defeat in WWII, the post-war â€Å"economic miracle† has reawakened the feelings once again. Nevertheless, the rigid, exclusive world view that has been present in pre-1945 Japan, no longer dominates the country.Ultra-nationalism has been discredited – at least in mainstream social, political, and intellectual life. The ideology that has its place is a set of rules by which society generally has learned to operate efficiently. The set of rules are learned from parent, the authority figures, the educational system and the mass media, and contain among other things social solidarity, or collectivistic behavior and thinking, hierarchical social structure, or power distance, role playing, or tatemae, reciprocal obligations, or group harmony.Although this set of rules is far weaker than the pre-war ultra-nationalistic ideology, it is still more rigid and omnipotent than those of e. g. Western societies. In Japan, the rights of the group are thus prioritized over those of the individual, and there are rules for most activities, creating a dependency on others and on group, which again reinforces an ideal of rules, group harmony and collectivism. The Japanese ideal portrays men and women behaving modestly, speaking prudently, and avoiding offending others and maintaining in-group harmony. For them, the deal of individualism is un-noble, risky and illogical. The Japanese desire people to be polite, courteous and indirect with each other. The Japanese are only frank on rare occasions, striving to put the best face, as well as save face, on themselves and situations (Cohen, 1997:146147, 184-186, 224). To express what one really thinks or feels in Japan is regarded as uncultivated and vulgar. The Japanese do not see themselves in first place as individuals, but as group-oriented members. The social group gives them approval, identity and companionship, status, and meaning as such with their lives.All the group members are interdependent. Matsumoto used a food model in order to describe human relations in Japan, calling it natto (ferme nted soybeans). Fermented soybeans sit in sticky glue of starch, and it is impossible to extract one without pulling out the others – they are all connected by the same glue. According to Matsumoto, the beans represent the closeness and interdependence present in the Japanese culture (March, 1996: 15-34, Kodansha, 1994: 32-37, 131-132, Wakaba, 1996: 4-12). 27 8. 6 Western InfluenceThe Japanese culture has been greatly influenced by Western cultures throughout the years, such as the British, the Prussian (e. g. in 1889, Japan created Western-style constitution greatly influenced by Prussia), the Portuguese, and the American. The Western influence entered the shores of Japan through trade, Christianity (missionaries) and war (WWII and the American occupation), as well as through cultural and business exchanges (e. g. through travels and international business). During the mid-16th Century, the Europeans made their first appearance on the shores of Japan.The first Portuguese to be shipwrecked in 1543 found an appreciative Japanese reception for their skills in making firearms. The Jesuit missionary, Francis Xavier, arrived in 1549, and was followed by more missionaries who converted local lords to Christianity (several hundred thousand converts particularly in Nagasaki) – keen to profit from foreign trade and assistance with military supplies. Initially, the Japanese emperor saw the advantages of trading with Europeans and tolerated the arrival of Christianity as a counterbalance to Buddhism.However, this tolerance gradually turned into suspicion of a religion, which he saw as a threat to his rule. This suspicion resulted in rulings against Christianity and the crucifixion of 26 foreign priests and Japanese believers in 1597. The prohibition and the prosecution of Christianity continued under the Tokugawa government until it reached its peak in 1637 with the brutal suppression by the authorities of the Christianled Shimabara Rebellion. This put an e nd to the Christian Century although the religion continued to be practiced secretly until it was officially allowed at the end of the 19th Century.Additionally, in order to eliminate Christianity's presence in Japan, it was required for every family to register a Buddhist temple, becoming a familiar scene in every community. Because of this religious policy, all Japanese today are Buddhist by default. The Western influence continued during the Meiji period (1868-1912) when the Japanese economy underwent a crash course in westernization and industrialization. An influx of Western experts was encouraged and Japanese students were sent abroad to acquire expertise in modern technologies.During the Meiji period, the process of modernization and industrialization took place in Japan, inspired by Western philosophers. An almost obsessive admiration and adaptation of Western ideas and culture had taken place during this period. 28 By the 1890s, the Japanese government leaders were concerne d by the spread of liberal Western ideas and encouraged nationalism and traditional Japanese values. Japan was becoming more confident and an equal player to the Western powers, resulting in the abolition of foreign treaty rights and, in the years to come, in nationalism.This continued till Japan’s defeat in WWII, and the American occupation. The main aim of the occupation was to reform the Japanese government through demilitarization, the trial of war criminals and the removal of militarist and ultranationalists from the government. Additionally, a new constitution was introduced, which dismantled the political power of the emperor, forcing him to publicly reject any claim to divine origins. Once again, Japan was influenced, if not ruled, by Western powers. Finally, in the late 19th century, Western Europe became its model for modernization.